lunes, 28 de septiembre de 2015

BIOETHICS AND THE TERMINAL PATIENT IN MEXICO
INTRODUCTION
The situation that the Mexican Government has in front of its people is interesting, because for it is not important, only at election’s time. The health sector in Mexico leaves a lot to be desired, as much in public as in private, to talk about public sector is talking about a trip of horror for the patient, since it’s driven by a hungry syndicalism of power and money where the less important is the health in themselves and thereby, less the patient, in the private the business between insurers and doctors is round-trip, since the patient doesn’t look like a person otherwise like a customer, clarifying not in all cases but in the most.
We are not against that the medicine sells, because after all we live in a capitalist world, but is true the medicine has ethics and it is known like bioethics, that in this country is not known, it is different, in this context we will get to our study the terminal patient.
The terminal patient is an important part in the study for the bioethics, since it gives beginning and end to the person’s dignity as such. The bioethics is the ethics applied to the medicine, but from therapeutic point of view ethics is like the congruence in the person, or of a system.
The terminal patient in addition to fight, to feel and to cope with his illness, has to confront a system of negligent health in a lot of senses, where the relation medical-patient many of the times doesn’t exist or it’s not enough, the palliative medicine and the psychiatric and psychological attention as much to the patient like the family, it’s very little or void, since, appointments that it’s granted to them are very lengthy, regarding the forecast of the patient, thanks to the Mexican law that simply doesn’t chase social welfare, but yes the political proselytism.
The bioethics in this country is one of the few things that matter least, since, there’s very little knowledge in the population, and to Mexican Government doesn’t interest to spread it out for its town.
In this investigation we’ll go on board from the point of view of the terminal patient and the absence of bioethics in this country.

CONTEXT
The concept of terminal patient, we define it as the one it can be applicable like to people that suffer any pathology that is found in final stage of his life without possibilities of recuperation, either because the specific cure is not known to the condition that had or because the state advanced of disease doesn’t enable any improvement at all.
The notion of terminal patient implies a great level of complexity, since it involves the idea of death and a life coming to an end.
But, what is a terminal illness? It’s that one in that the patient no longer has any possibility of getting better, since solution isn’t known or because the condition doesn’t represent possible retroversion, in the terminal illness show up a series of characteristics that presents an advanced, progressive, incurable disease, the lack from reasonable possibilities of response to the specific treatment, the presence of numerous problems or intense, multiple, multifactorial and changing symptoms, a great emotional impact in patient, family and therapeutic team, very pertaining to the presence, explicit or no, of death, a forecast of lower life to 6 months.
Diseases like these can take a patient to make terminal; cancer, AIDS, motor neuron diseases, specific organic failure (kidney, heart, liver etc.)...  They keep these characteristics, in bigger or smaller measure, in the final stages of disease.
In this context play a role very important the alleviative medicine and the thanatology.
The mission of the alleviative medicine is helping the patients with serious or terminal disease to feel good and to accept her process of life and death, treat symptoms, side effects of disease and the treatments. Have impact on all the spaces of life and of the life of the members of the family.  As well as the family confronts stress during a disease that can provoke fear, anxiety, despair or depression.
The thanatology is death's scientific knowledge, its rites and significance conceived like professional discipline, which integrates the person as a biological, social and spiritual being to live in plenitude, is just like the thanatology is defined. A most concrete definition is regarding it as the study of the life that includes death. Of the Greek origin “thanatos” (death) and “logy” (study or treaty), the objective of the thanatology is providing to the patient with a disease in terminal stage and to theirs families professional help.
But, what does a dignified death? The quality of life during this final stage, the adequate attention, the help to solve problems, to die surrounded of affectionate people, not to be object of experimentation, to respect and to give the patient pleasure, to present real options for his present-day situation, not to give false expectations.
Kübler Ross has conceived death like “a passage toward another kind of life”, described that the terminal patient spend by 4 stages, many of them in their phase of agony and previous to death:
Denial: Deny reality looking for other options or looking for evidences that show the diagnosis that they receive is an error and consequently they want to change doctor.
Wrath: The patient revolts against reality.
Pact: Assumes his condition.
Depression: Appear when the patient is conscious that all phases fail and that disease obeys its course toward the ending.
Acceptance: During this stage you are solving several processes, problems or situations that help the patient accept his condition.
Then categorically talking we’re in the face of a mourning, but a mourning takes place not only for the death of a loved one, losses constitute a phenomenon a lot ampler, and for better or worse, general and lose not only by death but also being abandoned, changing and moving on.
One of the most important points inside the thanatology is its Autonomy's principle allows the individual taking his own decisions related with the process of dying. The person’s dignity is understood only through respect for freedom.
For instance, they can get certain actions, from the realization of testaments, inheritances, responsibilities, or early wills where the biolaw would enter in your care.
To be in the terminal stage of a disease is definitely one of the most difficult situations that a human being can face, but depends on each individual the way in which effectively it’s done: Some lose every hope, while other ones devote themselves to faith and get ready at least spiritually of better way to receive the final stage.
Well, we’ve observed and analyzed the context of the terminal patient in general, now we’ll focus on Mexico.
THE TERMINAL PATIENT IN MEXICO
We will begin giving a brief context of the Mexican system of health, to give us an idea as this is linked to the terminal patient.
The bioethics has collected academic autonomy and social diffusion, when human and the ethical requirements derived of her protection have discussed problems related with the origin and end of life.
The fundamental value of life orders unavailability and the sacredness of the same. The right to life is the first right and it´s fundamental (without being absolute), because without it everybody else (including freedom) are non-existent. The respect to life, as well as its defense and promotion, both of others as their own, represent a human being's ethical important mandate that we have to respect always. It is the most sacred thing that we have; the life of each is unique, unrepeatable, irreplaceable, unbreakable. Such respect to the human life is understood in all his stages of manifestation, from the moment of conception (fertilization) until the last moment (total brain death).
Like already have mentioned it the terminal patient in Mexico besides dealing with his disease he faces to the negligence's system, a system known as social security, that would have like objective organizing the right to the health, the medical attendance, the protection of livelihoods and the necessary social services for the individual and collective well-being of the workers, as well as the granting of the pensions guaranteed by the State.
With a series of reforms done to the law, not seen by the patient's interest if not for political ideologies and corruption in the system, it seems that the individual's integrity is not important in Mexico and a lot less human rights.
The social security in Mexico counted itself like a paternalistic vision on behalf of the State in protecting her citizens, giving as such a welfare state that is the main objective of this system and takes us to the following issue:
Does exist the welfare state in Mexico?
We would begin by analyzing that the welfare state is an ideal model where the State assumes the primary responsibility of the well-being of his citizens, as we mention it previously, in theory and under the constitutional Mexican frame, it exists, but, really the Mexican State actually has been defender of the famous welfare state in our lives as Mexicans?
So remarking that we have made us this question many times during last years, when we're observing several reforms in the Mexican Social Insurance Institute's Law, the Institute of social security for the government employees, and in the bankrupt reach of the popular insurance.
The social security system in Mexico, is riddled with bureaucracy, syndicalism and negligence, acts as the burning of a nursery, where children die or as the constant negligence on the part of its staff, as well as the black market transplant organs, organized crime creating tertiary hospitals where money is laundered, and taxes are not paid, because the system is built for that.
Social security refers to the well-being pertaining to the social protection or the coverage of the needs socially recognized, like the poverty, the old age, the disabilities, the unemployment, families with children, that is to say, for there to be a welfare state.
The bioethics, understand it like the ethics applied for to all the sciences in this case the ethics applied for would be social security saying from other way, dressing with dignity to this branch of science as a human.
The abyss we propose is that in a country that feels of first world, with politicians and lawmakers mediocre, it gives horrible attentions tasteless to the people.
Leaving much to be desired in the welfare state of the State.
Understanding that the state of the well-being is an ideal model where the State assumes the primary responsibility of the well-being of his citizens. This responsibility is comprehensive, because they’re considered all the aspects of the well-being; A security system, is not enough it’s universal, because it covers every person, which gives positive rights legislation.
The welfare state refers to the provision of welfare services for the State.
Actually, the citizen is victim of your own leaders that suffer from power, where the welfare state has become a permanent- wealth stadium for them and its heirs that unfortunately has become in alms of life, for the citizens.
Social security it aims to protect people, of the contingencies, diseases and accidents, be or no of work, cessation, unemployment, maternity, temporary and partial inability, invalidity, old age, marriage, death and any other risk that can be object of social prevention, as well as of the loads derived of the home life and the needs of house, recreation that every human being has, contemplated in the article 4 four of the Constitution of the Mexican United States.

Social Security must ensure that people who are in temporary or permanent inability to earn an income, or that they should assume exceptional financial responsibilities, may follow satisfying their needs, providing them, for that purpose, financial resources or determined services. (9)

The right to the social security has a constitutional ground that is located on the fourth paragraph of article 4 of the Constitution of the Mexican United States which is quoted below:
   “Everyone has the right to health protection. The law will define the rules and forms for access to health services and establish the concurrence of the federation and the states in matters of public health, according to established in the section XVI of Article 73 seventy-three of this constitution” (13)
In the article 123 of the same Constitution, in its two sections: A and B abounds about social security of Mexicans.
The expedition of a law for the Creation of an organism integrated by federal governments, workers and employers is considered a social benefit, that he manages the resources of the National Housing Fund.
This law will regulate the forms and procedures under which employees can purchase the aforementioned property habitation.
So says paragraph XXIX which literally says.- Is public utility the Social Insurance Law, and it will understand disability insurances, of old age, of life, of involuntary cessation of the work, of diseases and accidents, of daycare services and any other, aimed at the protection and welfare of workers, peasants, no employees and other social sectors and their families. "(10)
Claims for the working class took shape from the Constitution of 1917.
The Article 123 establishes, between other measures, responsibilities of the bosses in industrial injuries and occupational diseases, as well as the obligation to observe the legal principles about hygiene and safety.
The aforementioned fractions are the more redeemable and fundamental of the social-security right.
In the course of time the Social Insurance Law, was reformed several times, but the most significant was in 1997 year to privatize the system of pensions, actually we observe that the law is becoming a ghost of what it was in your underlying principles of Social Insurance, and it is there where the Bioderecho's mother, I consider, it's the social-security right, its origin and its motive would be health and the welfare state of the workers.
We would begin by analyzing that the welfare state is an ideal model where the State assumes the primary responsibility of the well-being of his citizens.
In theory and under our constitutional frame, exists, but actually, Has the Mexican State actually been a defender of the so famous welfare state in our lives as Mexicans?.
We notice that the issue here we have prepared it during these last years when observing several reforms in the Social Insurance Law and in the bankrupt the Popular Security's reach.
But that’s the Popular Insurance according to Government of the republic:
    “The Popular Insurance of Health is the instrument to meet the challenge set out in the 2001-2007 National Health Program, offering an option of public insurance on the subject of health to the families and the citizens that for their labor and socioeconomic condition are not rightful claimants of the institutions of social security.”(11)
But in this sense Government of the republic mixes up the term of social work with insurance topic, and we observe in our juridical literature that is not the same and we analyze it as follows:
  “Article 3.- For the effects of this Law, understanding as social assistance the set of actions to modify and improve the social circumstances that impede the development of the individual as well as physical, mental and social protection of people in need, helplessness physical and mental handicap, until their incorporation into a full and productive life. Social assistance includes promotion, forecasting, prevention, protection and rehabilitation.” (12)
Unfortunately, our governments together with the legislators have made these two so solidary concepts and where social security goes hand in hand with social assistance, a paradise of lies.
To begin, the popular insurance term is a misused word since in the insurance, the organization that aims to manage the State, as we already observe the word insurance is in theory and practice an institution of social security, not only of social assistance.
As we know when talking of Social Insurance we’re talking about one of the institutions that supposedly is responsible for providing social security and entered a comparative terms where, the institutions of social security bring a pension system (bad in IMSS case) which they call cash benefits and the other benefits in kind, would be known as hospital care, that in the case of popular insurance does not handle in a matter of cash benefits.
That's why federal Government is pretending a fictitious social security system providing a poor reflection of social assistance, because they don't have many of the medicines.
Social security is a duty that we have with other ones inside the society; It’s an human expression in order to take care of each other when we finished the productive age or some accident or disease forbids us to fend for ourselves. (13)
In this context we fall like an example, in the Bioethics Committees of hospitals, these committees are only in theory, because the IMSS law doesn't stipulate that have, neither in the ISSSTE or ISSFAM law, then entered in the conclusion that the committees are gaps in the Mexican legal framework.
Every Bioethics’ Committee is responsible for systematically and steadily of the ethical dimension of a) the health sciences, b) the life sciences c) innovative health policies. Theoretically this committee is composed of various experts, has multidisciplinary character and its members adopt different approaches with the intention of resolving issues and problems of bioethics policy, in particular moral quandaries related to bioethics. Moreover, in addition to  become more sensitive to ethical quandaries, the members of these committees acquired over the time, the knowledge and abilities necessary to approach the problems more effectively, to the point that often are the way to solve quandaries whose arrangement seemed impossible to the beginning, but what happens in our country, not only have been politicized.
Simply doesn’t exist because at least they should have taken a formal Bioethics' course, the General Health’s Law stipulates that there should be in each hospital must have an investigation with at least one ethics committee and another scientist.
Under the circumstances, here we see that the social security or bioethics are essential parts for a good development in the protection of the health of citizens, and therefore the regulatory framework would be the Biolaw together with the right to social security.(14)

THE PATIENT'S CROSSING THE MEXICAN HEALTH SYSTEM.
Well, now we're going to give an overview of several patients, either at terminal stage, and other diseases, these are some of their testimonies:
“ I left my job like always, in a hurry, suddenly I felt as my forces disappeared and I lost consciousness, I woke up after a while in a medical care center of the cross, there, quickly made me several analyzes and they said I was sick and to go to my family care clinic, because they were declared incompetent to the situation, as one of their diagnosis without basis was that I had an urinary infection, of a doctor who has not degreed and that they have him working there I don't know why, maybe for some political issues.
So I decided going to my family clinic where I belong, but what worried me was not my health, if not the way that would react in my work that they fire me, since my boss has me with the lowest salary in front of the social insurance institution, sometimes I labored twelve hours and my salary is the only thing that I have, in order to keep me.
Then I got to my clinic, since 5 in the morning the people get to leave their health cards at the table of reception out of their corresponding doctor's office to be attended for the doctor, it was a seemingly endless wait, and in the best case it can occupy the morning, I decided to wait since I had no scheduled appointment and decided to wait for the medical assistant, between so much people I was sleeping when suddenly appears three hours after putting makeup on and eating and I said her that if please programed me an appointment because I felt so bad, for my misfortune she told me that she didn’t have appointment up within a month, that she couldn’t help me, that  went for urgencies.
Desperate I went urgencies because my pain was intermittent, they examined me and make me analyzes, but they just returned me on to my doctor's office to get appointment again, I did it within a month and in urgencies only prescribed me paracetamol.
I returned to work next day, for this the night before I hadn't slept absolutely at all, and on the way to the work I fainted again, they knocked at the ambulance but this time they transferred me a private hospital, a familiar, decided to pay the account for the attention in urgencies, he spend almost all his fortnight and the analysis neither say it was unplayable, so he decided to help me paying, they did me the analysis and I saw a specialist and he told me that I had a very advanced cancer and that the chemotherapies' round cost as much as my house that I'm finishing to paying by a credit.
So I decided to go already with all my analysis to my appointment in order that they were moving me of a third level hospital, to my surprise the doctor was new and newly-arrived with a specialty in family doctor since the one that I had before was general, and they transferred me to a third level hospital to take my treatment.”
In Mexico we observe this crossing in most of the patients, another one, rightful claimant, he wants to know about the advancement of an injury in the arm that he had incapacitated since three weeks.
“ I arrived since 6 in the morning only to see that the row of people with injuries or in waiting for result of analysis that was growing up and growing up, but any reception clerks or doctor was arriving to the reception.
But as in every rule, always there's an exception: In one of the doctor's offices, doctor appeared, exactly at 6:12 hours, before the reception clerk, and he began to attend whom already expected him punctually ”
At the end they attended the patient until 11:30 to tell him that he was on with inability and that he should have gone with a traumatologist to take care of specialized way his injury; they programed to him the appointment for the day May 8 in the General Hospital.
Another patient, attended to go on with the treatment of an asthmatic crisis that suffered five days ago. In his case, the visit to the clinic lasted for five hours approximately.
Since 5 in the morning he installed in the clinic to place his health card and in spite of being the second in the row, his consultation took place over past 9 in the morning, where they were given him a quick review, consult that consisted with Dr. sitting in her desk in front of her computer, with an occasional look to the patient, questioning him about how he was felt during the weekend and how does he feeling at his treatment.
Once he finished, she gave him an appointment for the following week and she prescribed to him some medications that he had to recibe in the pharmacy, medications that would help him to avoid a crisis of health again, but he found out that there was no medication and he had to buy it.
In the emergency's area only there are two family doctor's offices and one in urgencies, which is why the infrastructure is not enough to take care of the request of patients.
In other case a termianl patient with colon's cancer, had been to the hospital more of 52 of weeks, her situation was critical, the bureaucratic system doesn't admit that be patients with more of 52 weeks to hospitalized and they have to registrer him/her, in order to deposit him again, and that's what happened she was discharged her with a colostomy and parenteral nutrition, the patient that it lasts in your house a week suffers a relapse and he/she re-enters.
The emotional load for the patient is strong, and to him services of treatment or thanatology, for him and his family.
In this same case, the relatives that accompany it and go looking after sleep on the floor don't have peace, and they have to fight with a deficient security system, where, they demand them entrance card to see their patient awarded by them.
The waiting is long and the patient is just about to die the attending doctor gives the news of a very hard way and without humanity, it seems that the bioethics, doesn't exist, in the system a relative dies, between everything, they are not offered to psychological attention, and if they want to make it, they have to ask for appointment, and to do the crossing.
It's sad, observing as the patient is treated like an object, the system treats him as a thing and sees him like a package in a bed.
LEGAL FRAME OF THE TERMINAL PATIENT
In the General Health Law, mark the key aspects, observing:
Article 166 Encores 3. The sick patients persons in terminal situation have the following rights:  Receiving comprehensive medical attention; To be admitted in the health institutions when he requires medical attention; To voluntarily leave the institution of health in which is hospitalized, from conformity to the applicable dispositions; Receiving a worthy, respectful and professional deal trying preserving his quality of life; Receiving clear, opportune and enough information about the conditions and effects of his disease and the types of treatments which he can choose according to the disease that he suffers; Giving his informed consent in writing for the application or no of treatments, medications and palliative cares suitable to his diseases, needs and quality of life; Ask the doctor to administer medication to mitigate the pain; Give up, leave or refuse at any time to receive or continue treatment to consider extraordinary; Choose to receive palliative care in a particular home; Designate a family member, legal representative or a trusted person for the case that with the advance of the disease, be prevented from expressing his will, do it on his behalf; To receive spiritual services, when requested by him, his family, legal representative or person of trust; and other laws indicate.
It is interesting as the article of the Law is very clear however it doesn't perform literally, the patient is not cared with personalized attention, if he is seen only like a number or like a disease.
We will continue describing the Law.
Article 166 Encores 4. Every grown-up, in full use of his mental faculties, can, at any time and regardless of her state of health, leaving his will in writing in front of two witnesses, to receive or not any treatment, in the case he got to suffer a disease and being in terminal situation and don't be possible for him to manifest said will. The aforementioned document will be able to be revoked at any time.
To be valid layout will referred to in the preceding paragraph, it shall adhere to the provisions of this Act and other applicable provisions.
This article is null since in secondary laws it doesn't protect before who neither how we could talk about a public notary but his scope is municipal and not federal, the only one is the public hall but he specializes in mercantile stuff only, it seems that we're jumping gap in gap in Mexico.
Article 166 Encores 8. If the sick person in terminal situation is a minor, or he finds  incapacitated to express his will, the decisions derived of the rights indicated in this title, will be assumed by the parents or tutor and in lack of these his legal representative, person of his confidence of legal age or judge in accordance with the applicable dispositions.
Interesting but this fastens to that justice is prompt and expeditious, thing that in paper, sounds good but in practice judge's resolution can take long long time, for the case that the terminal patient in most instances has died.
Article 166 Encores 11. In cases of medical urgency, and there's incapability of the sick person in terminal situation to express his consent, and in the absence of relatives, legal representative, tutor or man of trust, the decision of applying a medical surgical procedure or necessary treatment, will pass for the specialist and or for the Bioethics Committee of the institution.
It sounds good it reads better, but a lot of hospitals in Mexico don't know what is bioethics and a lot less consider necessary Bioethics committee.
Although there is a difference between justice and right, many times the right, most of times in this country does not chase justice. So, that falls into a legality kind of barbarity, making of the statistics its social and lucrative intentions, taking away the basic principles of justice. It plead so for a Law not formalistic, no dogmatic, no anti-historic, but for a right inserted in his social changing reality, facing the future, that not only regulate situations now established, but also the new realities, in which there are no precedents. Here the judge, the operator of Law, in the case of the theme that develops, should to request the collaboration from other connected sciences to the theme, like biology, medicine and ethics, for recognize and establish together the principles and basic standards, that they allow combining the scientific investigation and its responsibility with the protection of human person and its dignity, that is specific tasks of ethics and the right, through the biolaw.
We are a town on growing, consolidation and in evolution, the impact of other cultures; that is learning to walk, to value and know ourselves; that we have negatives sides, and that we have to have more emotional intelligent, combining ethics and bioethics, although we are individualists. We are maturing before our difficulty of working as a team.
Like indicates to corporate level and having in our legal commercial frame a kind of society that is interested in associates, the limited-liability company.
The Bioethics is a basic answer based in the dignity of the town that taking it to a stricter sense brings a consolidation of the Mexican state like a humanly possible country, that the ideological barriers would not have grief neither glory, since they would look dim by a humanistic system bringing everything along to what aspirates the traditionalistic politics.
Politics misses all that the biopolitica would deem as interference and not like an innovative result that has persecuted Mexico during a lot of years.
The biopolitics, would brushed aside the class-conscious politics in which we are immersed and having been to us generations in our walking.
The Mexican politics is sick, is a patient in terminal state, damaging this country, and bringing with it in degenerate environmental and social of the town that lives like normality, and this brings it get to the medicine and the right between its feet.
It is not normal that a Latin American country, the average citizen cannot dedicate a profession that cost him years of study and this, are controlled by a corrupt unionism with nepotism, public transport and is an epidemic out of control by the death of people, that the police be a criminal with permission, that the media be the fourth political power, that kill students, kill children in a kindergarten in the state, that killed religious leaders and social idealists, that kill teachers, kill everything that has to do with the present of Mexico.
That's why to violence must dedicate ethics, and to politics Bioethics.
To the law, must be given justice and bioethics, and to the medicine, humanity and applied ethics and dignity to the terminal patient.
CONCLUSION
The terminal patient has been forgotten by this country and therefore the health system in Mexico, the patient, apart from your illness suffer a series of bureaucratic anomalies, medical malpractice, and labor movements, bioethics is the answer to give dignity to the patient.
Of legal way the biolaw would give legal respect and juridical certainty to the patient, the general law of health lacks secondary laws, and what's interesting is that to the politician, he doesn't matter because is in his own occupations, here the strange it's that the town doesn't react.
Today it is a big problem; the most insecure that exists, forgotten for the jurists of the absence of the suitable information, of the roots of the problematic.
In a country where the right to life is not contemplated in the constitution, where the Health Service is a business, where social security has become part of the capitalist system we couldn't expect more.
The bioethics committees in this country are scarce the bioethics is a someone else's theme, there is not source of job for a bioethicist, it's a strange race in this country, the human factor has been forgotten.
Do not forget that we can't take off this problem of thousands of forms of problems facing the country, since it’s art of forgetting of a country without conscience and that its story is largely invented by a corrupt political system where democracy was created in 1910 for the masses of illiterate and not to be held as such.
Where the authorities raze everything and the society is subdued and absorbed in alms of life.
Where a mother, a fundamental part of the system such as the country is full of corruption called terminal cancer patient.
Only a society committed can succeed, the human factor doesn't count in this, politicians are in their affairs, we lack of awareness and terminal patient died before being treated by doctors.

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lunes, 10 de agosto de 2015

LA JUSTICIA SOCIAL EN MEXICO.
Muchos nos hemos preguntado  varias cuestiones:
¿Sirvió de algo la revolución mexicana? ¿Realmente  vivimos en una  democracia?  ¿Tenemos el  gobierno  que nos merecemos?  ¿Qué tanto tiene que ver la mentalidad del mexicano  en ser una víctima?  ¿Cómo es la  vida de un obrero mexicano?  ¿Si estudias tendrás un buen trabajo en mexico? ¿El encomendarse a dios podría ser una opción de salvación en esta vida para mexico? ¿Qué tan significativo es la indiferencia ante los demás?  ¿Por qué la conciencia del mexicano es borrable con un pedazo de pan o un costal de oro? ¿Qué tanto la imagen  es importante  para el mexicano? ¿Todos somos  narcos? ¿La violencia es parte de la cultura en mexico?
Preguntas,  van preguntas vienen,  realmente  la justica social aquí en mexico está en juego, en la esperanza siempre se encuentra en carne viva, la ley en mexico es imperante  el gobierno como sistema  protector  a fracasado, si lo  sabemos  y en este manuscrito, no nos  gustaría  hablar  de ello.
 Vivimos con el enemigo, el enemigo que somos nosotros  mismos, ya que  el cambio está en nosotros, pero no lo queremos ver  creemos que la psicología es para locos, que el futbol nos da identidad nacional y que  somos lo que somos  gracias a lo que  tenemos.
Seremos lo que fuimos sin  saber hacia  dónde vamos por que no nos  conocemos, sangre mucha  sangre  se ha derramado por nuestros  prejuicios, somos un mal hibrido de  otros sistemas, latinoamericanos y  el estadounidense.
Queremos  ser gringos, sin voltear a Latinoamérica,  queremos ser poderosos  en dos segundos sin haber procesos de sacrificio, creemos en dios solo para  ser algo que en nuestro intelecto se ha impuesto por televisión.
Justicia social…
·         ¿justicia mediática?  Realmente  será  la respuesta  una monarquía democrática, una conciencia  colectiva destructiva de los demás olvidándonos que somos parte de ellos.
·         Violencia corporativa, en donde creemos que los políticos, son nuestro mesías, los comparamos con cristo, siendo que en un espejo son iguales a Hitler.


Somos  lo que somos  gracias nosotros.

jueves, 6 de agosto de 2015



La reforma constitucional en materia penal de junio de 2008.
Claroscuros de una oportunidad histórica para transformar el sistema penal mexicano*
El sistema penal en un complejo diseño institucional de pesos y contrapesos que busca mantener la convivencia pacífica entre los miembros de una sociedad, haciendo de la amenaza penal el último argumento del poder del Estado. En este delicado equilibrio se desarrollan mecanismos para controlar el derecho de sancionar del Estado, y se rodean de garantías los derechos fundamentales de las personas que se ven amenazadas por el proceso penal, como el patrimonio y la misma libertad de la persona.
El diseño de las instituciones procesales y de sanción refleja mucho de la constitución política y ética de una sociedad. Parafraseando a Gustav Radbruch, para conocer mejor a una sociedad hay que analizar sus códigos penales y hay que visitar sus cárceles.
El 19 de junio de 2008 se publicó una extensa reforma penal en materia de seguridad pública, justicia penal y delincuencia organizada. Quizá sea la reforma penal de mayor alcance desde 1917. En algunos rubros representa un salto cuántico para mejorar el sistema de justicia; en otros sectores se registran francos retrocesos. Un desafío mayúsculo será la instrumentación de las mejoras al sistema, enfrentando baja profesionalización de los operadores del sistema, inercias centenarias e intereses creados.
1). “Sistema de Juicios Orales”
Lo que se ha dado en llamar “Sistema de Juicios Orales” consiste en un conjunto de instituciones que pretenden lograr una mejora cualitativa y cuantitativa del sistema penal. En lo cualitativo se construye un sistema acusatorio (equilibrio entre atribuciones del ministerio público y el juez, dando la mayor relevancia al proceso penal y no a la averiguación previa como en la actualidad) y adversarial (equidad entre el ministerio público y la defensa del imputado), con oralidad, publicidad y equilibrio entre atribuciones oficiales y garantías ciudadanas (Art. 20).
Algunos puntos relevantes de este aspecto de la reforma son lo siguientes:
- El eje del sistema penal pasa a ser el juez, que rige el proceso y controla la actividad de la policía y el ministerio público.
- Todas las audiencias serán orales y grabadas, terminando con el anacrónico, ineficiente, bromoso y poco transparente sistema de expedientes escritos.
- Se establece un proceso con un juez imparcial con igualdad entre las partes (ministerio público que acusa y el abogado defensor que asesora al acusado)
- La audiencia pública da transparencia al proceso y le dejará claro a la sociedad los hechos y la forma en que están siendo juzgados
- Sistema de salidas alternas
SISTEMA DE SALIDAS ALTERNAS. La contraparte del juicio oral son las salidas alternas, de ahí la importancia de abordar, aunque sea brevemente este conjunto de mecanismos. El juicio oral: un conjunto de procedimientos penales con equidad, transparencia, con una defensa adecuada y con una investigación moderna, es el referente de todo el sistema. Toda persona que sea señalada como probable responsable de la comisión de un delito debe tener la certeza de que tiene derecho a un juicio oral con todas sus garantías.
Sin embargo, si los 200 mil procesos penales (sumando tanto los de competencia federal, como los de la local) que se presentan ante los jueces mexicanos cada año, se canalizaran hacia el juicio oral, el sistema simplemente se colapsaría, pues sería imposible contar con la infraestructura y el personal suficiente para desahogar las audiencias preparatorias y las propias de los juicios orales. Para que un sistema pueda instrumentar eficaz y eficientemente este modelo procesal, se requiere que no más del 7% o 10% de los casos llegue a juicio oral. En Chile hay regiones en las que apenas un 3% de los casos derivan en juicio oral. En Chihuahua, donde ya opera este sistema, durante 2007 en el Distrito Judicial de la capital del estado, de 7 mil casos ingresados sólo 700 llegaron a audiencias preparatorias hacia un juicio oral, de los cuales la gran mayoría se resolvieron por otras vías. Sólo ocho se desahogaron en juicio oral y una decena más está en proceso de llegar a esta instancia.
El resto de los casos se canaliza a las “salidas alternas”, que son: principio de oportunidad (en casos de delitos menores y no violentos, el ministerio público, por escrito, y sujeto a impugnación del denunciante, envíe al archivo algún caso, por considerar que no hay suficientes elementos para realizar una investigación); justicia alternativa (en los casos de conflictos incipientes como injurias, golpes que no implican lesión, algunas modalidades menores de conflictos familiares); acuerdos reparatorios (particularmente en casos de accidentes de tránsito, que actualmente representan una cuarta parte de los procesos penales); para delitos no violentos o para casos de personas acusadas por primera vez de cometer un ilícito se puede optar por la suspensión del procedimiento a prueba: si la persona repara el daño, paga una multa, se compromete a prestar servicios a la comunidad, a asistir a platicas de orientación o terapia o a cumplir cualquier otra condición (como no acercarse a la víctima), su caso se archiva provisionalmente. Si la persona cumple las condiciones y no vuelve a tener acusaciones penales durante cierto tiempo, el caso se archiva en definitiva (en algunos casos si vuelve a ser acusado se reactiva el procedimiento anterior, además de que no puede suspenderse el nuevo caso). Así mismo, el “juicio abreviado”, consistente en que la persona imputada libre e informadamente y siempre y cuando exista evidencia suficiente, a consideración del juez, sobre su responsabilidad, acepte su participación en los hechos o su responsabilidad, renunciando a presentar pruebas y alegatos, a cambio de recibir una sanción menos gravosa. Estos mecanismos se aplicaran por mecanismos simplificados, accesibles y orales.
En la mayoría de los sistemas reformados entre 60% y 90% de los casos se resuelve por estos mecanismos, quedando entre 10% y 20% de rezago por estar en proceso nuevas investigaciones, por estar pendiente una orden de captura, entre otros. Dada la importancia cuantitativa y cualitativa de los mecanismos alternativos al juicio oral es del mayor interés vigilar la instrumentación legal y práctica de estos mecanismos, pues de la información, asesoría y apoyo a la víctima en defensa de sus intereses, así como de la transparencia, imparcialidad y equidad del procedimiento (en un país con tantas desigualdades como el nuestro, en la que los más pobres son los usuarios del sistema más numerosos), dependen la eficacia y efectividad de las salidas alternas (restaurar el orden social, reparar el daño de la víctima y sancionar las conductas ilícitas) y la legitimidad de todo el sistema penal.
El sistema de descongestión de las salidas alternas se contemplan en el nuevo texto del artículo 17 constitucional, párrafo tercero: “Las leyes preverán mecanismos alternativos de solución de controversias. En la materia penal regularán su aplicación, asegurarán la reparación del daño y establecerán los casos en los que se requerirá supervisión judicial”. A estos mecanismos se suma la posibilidad de que el ministerio público justifique el cese de la investigación: “El Ministerio Público podrá considerar criterios de oportunidad para el ejercicio de la acción penal, en los supuestos y condiciones que fije la ley” (art. 21, párrafo 7°).
2) La reforma modifica la situación de todos los participantes en el proceso penal
Las dimensiones, expectativas y alcances de la reforma impactan a todos los actores del sistema:
- Como ya se refirió el juez pasa a ser el actor clave, al restaurarse su condición de rector del proceso y siendo éste el momento procedimental fundamental, que antes compartía con los alcances legales de la averiguación previa
- El ministerio público recibe el desafío de reinventarse como un servidor público que desarrolle una investigación con procedimientos modernos, que permitan perseguir el delito de manera efectiva y con respeto a los Derechos Humanos; las actuaciones que el misniterio público realizaba por sí y sin ningún contrapeso durante la averiguación previa, pierden la trascendencia legal que anteriormente tenían (como el valor probatorio); el ministerio público ahora comparte las atribuciones de investigación con la policía(Art. 21 pfo. 1°).; y pierde el monopolio de la acción penal, pues en esta área las víctimas reciben más atribuciones. A cambio gana la posibilidad de desestimar la investigación de delitos menores en los que no haya suficiente evidencia (principio de oportunidad) y gana un rol estratégico en la utilización de salidas alternas, que, como se ha dicho, serían la vía más frecuente por la cual se concluirían los asuntos.
-Se dan más derechos a las víctimas (Art. 20, apartado C), entre ellos, la posibilidad de que en ciertos casos, especificados por la ley puedan ejercer la acción penal ante la autoridad judicial (Art. 21 pfo. 2°).
- Un sistema como el que se plantea demanda mayor profesionalismo y pericia de los abogados que intervienen en el sistema penal, por lo que se exige que los defensores sean abogados (en la actualidad cualquier persona puede llevar una defensa). Se señala que deberá desarrollarse un adecuado sistema de defensores públicos de buena calidad, para evitar que las personas pobres enfrenten el proceso con desventajas (Art. 17, pfo. 6°).
- Por lo que se refiere a la policía se le reconoce participación en la investigación de los delitos (Art. 21 pfo. 1°), cuya operación tendrá como características fundamentales ser Civil, disciplinado, profesional y coordinado (Art. 21 pfo. 10°). Por lo que se refiere a las policías municipales se vincula su actuación a directrices establecidas por la legislatura estatal y se introduce la posibilidad de que esta policía municipal reciba órdenes del gobernador de la entidad federativa: Art. 115, fr. VII, “La policía preventiva estará al mando del presidente municipal en los términos de la Ley de Seguridad Pública del Estado. Aquélla acatará las órdenes que el Gobernador del Estado le transmita en aquellos casos que éste juzgue como de fuerza mayor o alteración grave del orden público”.
3) Un desequilibrio inquietante
Como se apuntó al inicio de este texto, el sistema penal es un delicado sistema de pesos y contrapesos entre la potestad estatal de prohibir, procesar y castigar; el debido proceso; y los Derechos Fundamentales de las personas.
El sistema acusatorio comulga con trasladar las decisiones fundamentales al proceso, por lo que las actuaciones de investigación, no son si no una serie de indicios que brindarán las líneas de argumentación que tendrán que traducirse en hipótesis a probar durante las audiencias del proceso. Por ello, se “desformaliza” la investigación, es decir, la investigación del ministerio público y la policía ya no serán “actuaciones” transcritas, certificadas con firmas de los funcionarios y en hojas foliadas y cocidas. Ahora será una carpeta con los datos que vaya arrojando la investigación. Los testimonios y declaraciones que sean considerados como prueba serán los que se desarrollen ante el juez.
En consistencia con esta visión, al ministerio público ya no se le exige que acredite o “pruebe” ante el juez los indicios que tiene contra cierta persona señalada para que se le pueda capturar (Art. 16, pfo. 2°) o iniciar un proceso (Art. 19, pfo1°) en su contra. Ahora sólo se le pide que existan datos que “…establezcan que se ha cometido un hecho que la ley señale como delito y que exista la probabilidad de que el indiciado lo cometió o participó en su comisión” (Art. 19, pfo1°).
Es decir, el “estándar” para sujetar a un proceso penal a una persona se reduce considerablemente. En el texto anterior se establecía que para capturar o sujetar a proceso penal a una persona deberían existir “…datos que acrediten el cuerpo del delito y que hagan probable la responsabilidad del indiciado”. De acuerdo con los artículos transitorios del decreto de reforma (ver apartado seis de este texto) esta reducción entraría en vigencia a más tardar en ocho años.
Esta reducción en los “requisitos” para sujetar a las personas a la molestia que implica un proceso penal obedece a un nuevo modelo y a unas nuevas instituciones (que deberán generarse, como veremos en algunos años) que, por el principio de legalidad y profesionalismo de los funcionarios, hagan poco probable que una autoridad de investigación como el ministerio público solicite capturar o procesar a una persona partiendo de meras sospechas o señalamientos sin fundamento.
El modelo aludido asume que si bien es indiscutible que someter a un proceso penal a una persona es una molestia mayor, se confía en que habrá un sistema profesional de investigación y acusación y un poder judicial imparcial y defensor del debido proceso, que reduzcan a su menor expresión la probabilidad de cometer un error judicial: someter a proceso a una persona inocente. En la actualidad, anualmente, aproximadamente 36 mil personas en el país fueron puestas a disposición de un juez y el ministerio público no fue capaz de demostrar su responsabilidad (en muchos casos estas personas fueron privadas de su libertad durante el proceso): 12 mil no son sometidas a proceso por que el juez consideró que no había elementos suficientes; 9 mil no llegan a sentencia porque antes los argumentos de la acusación se debilitaron o se mostraron insuficientes y 15 mil personas reciben sentencias absolutorias.
Aún en el extremo de que se pueda dar, como en cualquier sistema ocurre, la posibilidad de someter a proceso a un inocente, un sistema acusatorio debe extremar las precauciones (estableciendo garantías y exigiendo la argumentación exhaustiva del ministerio público y la defensa del procesado) para cometer la mayor injusticia y acto de molestia que se le puede cometer a una persona sometida a proceso: privarlo de su libertad.
Y aquí es donde existe un desequilibrio inquietante: El “estándar” de procesamiento se reduce, conforme con el nuevo modelo; pero el régimen de prisión preventiva mantiene muchos de los rasgos del sistema anterior. Efectivamente, aunque el texto señala que la prisión preventiva sería la última medida a considerar se persiste en establecer delitos inexcarcelables, esto es, basta que el proceso se inicie por esos delitos para que la persona procesada permanezca en prisión hasta la sentencia. Se inaugura la práctica de establecer en la propia Constitución delitos inexcarcelables: “…en los casos de delincuencia organizada, homicidio doloso, violación, secuestro, delitos cometidos con medios violentos como armas y explosivos” (Art. 19, pfo 2°). La reforma no se atrevió a renunciar a los catálogos de delitos inexcarcelables establecidos por las legislaturas de los estados, siempre en constante expansión y que han llegado a incluir más de un centenar de modalidades delictivas. Habrá que ver el uso de qué “armas” (podrían ser navajas u objetos contundentes) son sancionadas por el legislador (como lo autoriza la Constitución) para que se aplique, sin argumentación o defensa alguna, la prisión a los procesados. Además, se establece que la ley también podrá considerar prisión preventiva para delitos “…en contra de la seguridad de la nación, el libre desarrollo de la personalidad y de la salud” (Idem).
Establecer catálogos de delitos inexcarcelables es contrario a las directrices del Derecho Internacional de los Derechos Humanos a las que México, en ejercicio de su soberanía, ha aceptado ceñirse. En este caso, se violenta significativamente la lógica de un sistema acusatorio y protector de los Derechos Humanos.
Un sistema que baje el “estándar” para procesar, manteniendo criterios severos de aplicación de la prisión preventiva puede afectar al sistema penal naciente en dos frentes principales. Por una parte, cabe la posibilidad de que se mantenga la práctica actual de aplicación excesiva de prisión preventiva. El otro sesgo que podría derivarse de este régimen de prisión preventiva que no se atrevió a desmontar la reforma, es que, con tal de huir de la sanción anticipada de prisión preventiva, los acusados de un número muy importante de delitos (por ejemplo de robo con arma, según el alcance que le dé el legislador) preferirían irse a una salida alterna (que en algunos casos implica reconocer la participación en el ilícito y la reparación del daño, quedando con antecedentes penales), frente a la opción de quedar en prisión mientras defiende su inocencia. Sería una paradoja mayúscula y una injusticia palpable que minaría la legitimidad del nuevo sistema.
4) Régimen especial para la delincuencia organizada
Esta es la parte que más críticas ha recibido, pues implica un régimen de excepción. Es decir, el nuevo modelo acusatorio o sistema de juicios orales, apuesta por una investigación profesional y un control judicial a favor de las garantías de los procesados y las víctimas. Sin embargo, en casos en los que la autoridad acuse a una persona por delitos de delincuencia organizada, se acepta preservar un proceso con muchos de los vicios del sistema anterior, en aras de “facilitar” a la autoridad el procesamiento de los acusados por estos delitos.
Esto es, se reducen las garantías que la reforma da al resto de las personas en el nuevo sistema y se mantienen “subsidios” a las investigaciones deficientes, concediendo ventajas al ministerio público. Las personas acusadas de delincuencia organizada sufrirán en todos los casos, por disposición constitucional, prisión preventiva; podrán estar en centros especiales de reclusión (aunque estén lejos del lugar donde vive su familia y abogados); se le podrá dar valor probatorio a diligencias realizadas por el ministerio público durante la investigación y se pueden introducir al proceso pruebas no sancionadas en una audiencia de juicio oral; así mismo, los inculpados podrán estar sin acusación formal, arraigados hasta por 80 días, se les puede ocultar la identidad de sus acusadores, así como prohibir careos con sus denunciantes o testigos.
Las autoridades plantean la posibilidad de un sistema penal moderno y acorde con una sociedad democrática y el Estado de derecho, pero se reserva ventajas y rasgos inquisitivos y premodernos para procesar a las personas señaladas como probables responsables de delitos considerados de delincuencia organizada. Algunos partidarios de éste régimen argumentan a su favor el que se establece la federalización de esa materia, es decir, al aparecer la nueva legislación federal, las legislaciones de delincuencia organizada de los estados dejarían de estar vigentes (Art. 73, fr. XXI, pfo. 1° y décimo primer artículo transitorio de la reforma).
5) Disposiciones sobre Seguridad Pública
Se le dan facultades de investigación a la policía (Art. 21, pfo. 1°). Se introduce una descripción de la seguridad pública: “… es una función a cargo de la Federación, el Distrito Federal, los Estados y los Municipios, que comprende la prevención de los delitos; la investigación y persecución para hacerla efectiva, así como la sanción de las infracciones administrativas, en los términos de la ley, en las respectivas competencias que esta Constitución señala” (Art. 21, pfo. 9°).
Se agregan a los principios que rigen la actuación las instituciones de seguridad pública (principios de legalidad, eficiencia, profesionalismo y honradez) los principios de objetividad y de respeto a los Derechos Humanos (Art. 21, pfo. 9°).
Se enfatizan las disposiciones sobre los lineamientos profesionalizantes y de coordinación que deben orientar a los tres niveles de gobierno en el sistema nacional de seguridad pública. Sin embargo, es contradictorio decir que se pretende profesionalizar y establecer una carrera para los miembros de los cuerpos de seguridad; en tanto que en la misma reforma, por cambios al art. 123 se limita su estabilidad laboral.
6) Los tiempos de entrada en vigencia de la reforma
Parte de la complejidad de la reforma es que algunos de sus preceptos ya establecidos en la Constitución entrarán en vigencia en diversos términos. Por ejemplo, las reformas orientadas a la restauración del sistema acusatorio y los juicios orales, salidas alternas reducción del “estándar” para procesar, entrarían en vigencia, de acuerdo con las reformas legislativas y el proceso de desarrollo institucional y capacitación en las diversas entidades federativas, en no más de ocho años (segundo artículo transitorio de la reforma).
Lo referido al ámbito de la seguridad pública entraría en vigencia en seis meses y los ajustes a la legislación local en materia de seguridad pública se deberán emitir en el término de un año (séptimo artículo transitorio de la reforma). Las reformas en materia penitenciaria (cambio de “readaptación” por el de “reinserción” y el establecimiento del juez de control de sentencias) entrarían en vigencia en tres años (quinto artículo transitorio de la reforma). Las disposiciones en materia de delincuencia organizada entran en vigencia de inmediato, quedando supeditado solamente a la transformación en la legislación de la materia. En tanto, seguirán en vigencia la legislación federal y las locales en dicho régimen (sexto artículo transitorio de la reforma).
7) Desafíos para la implementación
La transformación normativa es apenas uno de los componentes de un proceso de reforma penal. Además de la instrumentación a través de los ajustes a la legislación (como los códigos de procedimientos penales, leyes de seguridad pública, leyes de justicia alternativa, ley de defensoría pública, entre otras), debe invertirse en infraestructura, desarrollo de las instituciones, capacitación, transformación de los procedimientos al interior de las organizaciones, así mismo, influye de manera fundamental en el proceso de administración del cambio, el contexto social, político, económico y, particularmente, delictivo del país y sus regiones (No será lo mismo la reforma en Aguascalientes que en Sinaloa o Michoacán).
Se puede decir que el 80% del éxito de una reforma penal está en su instrumentación. Reformas legales poco significativas, pueden desarrollar todo su potencial si son adecuadamente instrumentadas; en tanto que, reformas de gran alcance y con gran desarrollo normativo pueden resultar en fiascos, si no son implementadas de manera adecuada.
La experiencia comparada muestra desafíos y precauciones fundamentales:
* Además del cambio legal e institucional implica un cambio cultural
*Que el desarrollo normativo de la reforma (cambios legales y nuevos códigos), respete y amplíe la tendencia de la reforma y no la sabotee
* Fortalecimiento de las instituciones que instrumentaran el nuevo sistema (mejor policía, mejores abogados, defensores de oficio efectivos)
* Proceso de instrumentación adecuado y gradual que permita arraigar el nuevo sistema y enfrente con éxito inercias que en algunos casos tienen siglos.
En lo que se refiere a la reforma mexicana de junio de 2008 se pueden señalar algunos puntos críticos a considerar para su implementación:
Debe realizarse la instrumentación del modelo en las leyes secundarias con mucho cuidado, pues es normal que en los procesos de reforma los litigantes y los funcionarios del anterior sistema aprovechen cualquier laguna legal, para reproducir prácticas del modelo anterior.
Así mismo, muchos avances constitucionales tendrán que ser defendidos en los tribunales, que al interpretar los casos más controvertidos, deberían fallar en el sentido de un sistema acusatorio moderno y no con base en criterios anteriores que fortalecían los rasgos inquisitivos del sistema anterior.
Ya se mencionó que en la instrumentación de las salidas alternas, deben establecerse audiencias que garanticen que las partes conozcan sus derechos y que los acuerdos y soluciones propuestas se resuelvan ante una instancia imparcial (como podría ser un juez), pues de otra forma (por ejemplo si se concilian ante el ministerio público o se llega a un acuerdo reparatorio en la procuraduría), más que buscar llegar a una solución que restaure el orden y la convivencia, la autoridad tendría incentivos para forzar un acuerdo con tal de quitarse un caso de encima, “resolviendo” el asunto.
En cuanto ala delincuencia organizada, mucho dependerá de cómo se instrumenten en la legislación los alcances de la noción delincuencia organizada. Podría generar incentivos a que los ministerios públicos planteen el caso como de delincuencia organizada (pues es el que les ofrece mayores plazos y más ventajas procesales). Además de que sería más fácil obtener una condena. Incluso en el caso de que al final del proceso se diera una absolución o se rectificará que los hechos no correspondían al delito de delincuencia organizada, ya se habrían tenido más instrumentos para investigar, así como la amenaza velada de someter al procesado a prisión preventiva.
También podría generar un “efecto contagio” en la medida que algunos funcionarios perciban que los instrumentos procesales premodernos son más eficaces para sus objetivos, que los del nuevo sistema penal acusatorio.
De esta forma, estamos ante una reforma de claroscuros, que si bien representa un salto cualitativo en cuanto al sistema acusatorio y sistema de juicios orales, presenta el desafío de aprender lecciones de los procesos de reforma de otros países, para desarrollar a plenitud los objetivos del nuevo sistema: un proceso más justo, equitativo, transparente y con pleno respeto a los Derechos Humanos. Por otra parte, la sombra de un régimen de excepción en materia de delincuencia organizada, significa un grave retroceso en los Derechos Humanos en el país.
Los tiempos para preparar el nuevo sistema son breves y los desafíos mayúsculos. Para lograr el mayor progreso y la mejor instrumentación de las transformaciones, es necesario un proceso gradual y estratégico, que permita capitalizar la oportunidad de mejorar nuestro sistema penal, una asignatura que no puede permanecer pendiente.